What is a demon?

A short overview of the concept across cultures and across time

If you have some notions of demonology, you must have already heard about this:

“Demon” comes from the ancient greek “δαίμων” (daïmon/daemon) and was used in multiple texts as a substitute for θεός (theos), which means “god”. Therefore, many scholars concluded that a daïmon is a god or a lesser god and were divided as the kakodaemon (bad daemon) and the eudaemon (good daemon).

If that conclusion isn’t necessarily wrong, it isn’t enough to grasp the entirety of what a demon is. What is a demon is in fact a very intricate question. Therefore, let’s take a look at the evolution of its definition throughout Europe, from Ancient Greece to the 17^th century, then a brief overview of the world’s perception of those strange and fascinating beings.

In literature, daemon refers to a divine unknown power that helps and guides mortals. The oldest evidence of demons goes back to Plato’s Symposium, where Diotima, a philosopher, teaches Socrates about daemons and their role. She takes the example of Eros, the concept for one of the 6 types of Love and primordial god. Eros is known, but not limited to, for causing love between humans. According to Diotima’s definition of daemon, Eros is one of them. She stated: “Everything that is daemonic is between humans and the divine.” In another piece, Socrates’ Apology, Socrates affirmed having his own daemons, said to be blessings from the gods and that would manifest to him as voices that guided, protected, and inspired him his entire life. This instance of action can be found in Homer’s Iliad. Their actions vary depending on the story, but the concept of a divine power that acts as a sort of middleman between the gods and humans was a common trend. In Ancient Greece, they were said to bless or punish, guide, or lead to despair those who deserved it. They had an influence on the thread of Destiny and were those who made sure every mortal followed theirs. This personification of a superior force influencing our life can be found in Homer’s Odyssey too. As for the divine power having the authority to punish, it is used in Agamemnon’s mythos and in Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebe.

“1. First worship the Immortal Gods, as they are established and ordained by the Law.

2. Reverence the Oath, and next the Heroes, full of goodness and light.

3. Honour likewise the Terrestrial Dæmons by rendering them the worship lawfully due to them.”

Golden Verses, Pythagoras.

This short extract from Pythagoras’ Golden Verses indicates daemons were worshipped in Ancient Greece.

Gods

Heroes/Demi-Gods

Daemons

Mortals

Rome brought a slightly different view on daemons. According to them, there were two types of daemons: upper-level daemons and lower daemons. The higher-level daemons were another name for the gods like Jupiter or Mars; they were the higher form of divine powers. The lower daemons were divided into different categories such as:

• Manes: spirits of the dead, ancestors
• Lares: spirits protecting the household
• Genies: spirits dealing with the threads of Fate
• Lemures: ghosts tormenting the livings

With the arrival of monotheism, there was a shift in the perception of deities and entities. In the Abrahamic religions, the concept of a singular God who had power over everything became the dominant belief. The polytheistic gods and goddesses from different pantheons were not considered as real entities anymore, but they were demonized as false idols, and their worship was forbidden. The ancient Greek concept of daemons, which referred to intermediate beings between gods and mortals, also evolved over time. In Christian and Jewish traditions, the concept of daemons was redefined to mean demons or evil spirits, rather than benevolent or neutral intermediaries. Angels, on the other hand, were viewed as messengers of God, serving a divine purpose. The terms « eudaemons » and « kakodaemons » are not commonly used in the context of angels and demons in Abrahamic religions.

The negative connotation to the word came later, in 1272, when Saint Thomas Aquinas wrote the famous On Evil. The devil became the source of all evil and his demons as well as their devotees were fighting the divine and were against the Abrahamic God. And as if that wasn’t enough negativity, a lot of translation errors reinforced the evil connotation attached to the demon. It is important to note the Christian Bible is a grouping of different books, translated to one language to another. Therefore, we have the Old Testament that got translated from Hebrew to Aramaic, the New Testament from Greek and so on, to form the King James Bible as we know it today. The δαίμων became “diabolos” in Latin, which gave us “devil” and “diable” in English and French.

However, during the 17th century, the daemons were associated with a new concept that can be linked to the philosophical concept in Ancient Greece. Saint Augustine defined demons as being purely psychological and explained therefore cases of possessions. This concept took an important breadth as he is one of the most influential figures in Western Christianity. He is known for mocking the works of those who thought demons were divine powers, like Apuleius (a roman writer and philosopher), as for him, the only intermediate divine power between the Abrahamic God and mortals was Jesus Christ.

In many non-European cultures, the concept of demons is a prevalent aspect of their mythologies, religions, and folklore. These beings are often depicted as malevolent spirits or supernatural entities that possess immense power and can cause harm to humans if not properly appeased or avoided. For the sake of this article, I will be using the word demon. However by no mean, am I trying to force the western definition of a demon on those cultures. The goal is to describe various spirits that, with a western lense, can be seen as demons.

In Mesopotamian culture, demons played a significant role in both religious and secular life. The Mesopotamian demon was often seen as a powerful force that could cause harm or bring good fortune depending on how they were appeased. One of the most well-known Mesopotamian « demons » is the god Pazuzu. Pazuzu is often depicted as a fierce, winged demon with a lion’s head and scaly skin. In Mesopotamian mythology, Pazuzu was seen as both a bringer of disease and a protector against evil spirits. Another important Mesopotamian « demon » was the goddess Lamashtu. Lamashtu was often depicted as a terrifying creature with the body of a lion, the head of a donkey, and the breasts of a woman. In Mesopotamian mythology, Lamashtu was believed to cause harm to pregnant women and infants. However, she was also seen as a powerful force that could protect against other malevolent demons. One important text for understanding Mesopotamian demons is the « Enuma Elish », which is the Babylonian creation myth. The text includes numerous references to various demons and their interactions with the gods. For example, one section of the text describes the god Marduk defeating the dragon Tiamat and her army of demons.

In African mythology, demons are often associated with negative aspects of life, such as death, disease, and misfortunes. The concept of demons varies across different African cultures, but they are generally perceived as malevolent spirits or entities that can possess or afflict people. In Yoruba religion, which is practiced in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa, demons can be compared to ajogun. They are considered as a group of spirits that cause sickness, misfortune, and other kinds of suffering. According to Yoruba mythology, the ajogun were created by Olodumare, the supreme deity, as a test of human resilience and faith. They are believed to be constantly at war with the orishas, the benevolent spirits that protect human beings. The Yoruba poet Oluwafemi Adegbite provides a vivid description of the ajogun in his poem « Ajogun, the Restless Ones »:

« The restless ones, the unfulfilled,

The ones who have been cursed with the eternal hunger,

They roam the earth like angry beasts,

Seeking whom they may devour. »

The ajogun are depicted as restless and hungry entities, always looking for ways to inflict suffering on human beings. They are also associated with chaos and destruction, as they are said to be responsible for natural disasters such as earthquakes and storms. In some African cultures, demons are also believed to be associated with the ancestors. For example, in the Ashanti culture of Ghana, the spirits of the dead are believed to have the power to possess living people and cause illness or other misfortunes. These spirits are called abosom, and they are seen as both benevolent and malevolent depending on their intentions towards human beings.

In Chinese mythology, demons can be seen in the entities known as guǐ or mó, and they are often associated with ghosts and spirits. The Classic of Mountains and Seas, a Chinese text from the 4th century BC, describes various demons and monsters, including the qilin (a mythical creature with the body of a deer and the scales of a dragon), the xiao (a small, mischievous demon), and the jingwei (a bird-like creature that symbolizes perseverance).

In Japanese culture, there are several different supernatural beings that are often referred to as « demons ». One example is the oni, which are usually depicted as large, fierce creatures with horns and sharp teeth. In Japanese folklore, oni are often seen as malevolent beings that cause harm to humans. However, in some cases, they can also be protective or benevolent.

Another example of a Japanese « demon » is the tengu. Tengu are often depicted as bird-like creatures with red faces and long noses. In Japanese mythology, tengu are often seen as mischievous tricksters that play pranks on humans. However, they can also be respected and even revered in some cases, particularly in certain martial arts traditions. In Japanese culture, one important text related to demons is the « Konjaku Monogatari », which is a collection of Japanese stories from the late Heian and early Kamakura periods. Many of the stories in the collection include references to oni and other supernatural beings. Another important text related to Japanese demons is the « Hyakki Yagyō Emaki », which is a scroll painting depicting various demons and other supernatural beings.

Divine unknown power, psychological manifestations of the depth of our subconscious, evil little creatures that absolutely love wearing red and have a strange beard… you will admit that it is all intriguing. While the specific characteristics and depictions of demons may vary across cultures, the underlying themes of fear, power, and the supernatural are common to all. As historian Robert Ellwood writes, « The demon has come to represent the dark side of human nature, the shadow self that we fear and seek to repress, but which ultimately must be acknowledged and integrated if we are to achieve wholeness and spiritual growth. » Going back to my question, “what is a demon?”, I cannot help but ask you what even an entity, divine or not, is. If the egregore theory is all very commonly spread right now (the idea that entities are the manifestation and creation of human’s beliefs and simultaneous energies), they are way more theories in this vast world. Are they the manifestation of human beliefs? Do they come from a greater source, may it be a single god or energy? Or perhaps they always existed and evolved with us, maybe coming from another dimension, another plane of existence.

Regardless of the specific theory or belief about the origin of supernatural entities, it is clear that they have played a significant role in human culture and spirituality throughout history. From the gods and goddesses of ancient civilizations to the angels and demons of modern religions, these entities have been seen as powerful forces that can influence and interact with human life. At the same time, there is a great deal of diversity in how different cultures and individuals understand and relate to supernatural entities. Some see them as benevolent and helpful, while others see them as malevolent and dangerous. Some believe in a hierarchy of beings with different levels of power and influence, while others see them as more fluid and dynamic.

In exploring the question of what a demon is, it is important to keep these different perspectives and beliefs in mind. While there may be no definitive answer, exploring different theories and perspectives can, I believe, help you gain a deeper understanding of the role that supernatural entities have played in human culture and spirituality, and how they continue to shape our beliefs and experiences today. It is entirely up to you now to shape your own belief system, your own comprehension and understanding of what a demon is, given some cultural background.